12 December 2013
Post-Implantacion de un ERP (36)
Systems Fundamentals - SEBOK (12)
Each part of the Guide to the SE Body of Knowledge (SEBoK) is divided into KAs, which are groupings of information with a related theme. This KA contains the following topics: What is a System? - Types of Systems - Groupings of Systems – Complexity - Emergence
Introduction
The word system is used in many areas of human activity and at many levels. But what do systems researchers and practitioners mean when they use the word system? Is there some part of that meaning common to all applications?
The concepts of open system and closed system are explored. Open systems, described by a set of elements and relationships, are used to describe many real world phenomena. Closed systems have no interactions with their environment. Two particular aspects of systems, complexity and emergence, are described in this KA. Between them, these two concepts represent many of the challenges which drive the need for systems thinking and an appreciation of systems science in SE.
Some systems classifications, characterized by type of element or by purpose, are presented.
Within the SEBoK an engineered system is defined as encompassing combinations of technology and people in the context of natural, social, business, public or political environments, created, used and sustained for an identified purpose. The application of the Systems Approach Applied to Engineered Systems requires the ability to position problems or opportunities in the wider system containing them, to create or change a specific engineered system-of-interest, and to understand and deal with the consequences of these changes in appropriate wider systems.
The concept of a system context allows all of the system elements and relationships needed to support this to be identified.
The discussions of engineered system contexts includes the general idea of groups of systems to help deal with situations in which the elements of an engineered system are themselves independent engineered systems. To help provide a focus for the discussions of how SE is applied to real world problems, four engineered system contexts are introduced in the KA:
1. Product System (glossary) context
2. Service System (glossary) context
3. Enterprise System (glossary) context
4. System of Systems (SoS) (glossary) capability context
What is a System?
This article forms part of the Systems Fundamentals Knowledge Area (KA). It provides various perspectives on systems, including definitions, scope, and context. The basic definitions in this article are further expanded and discussed in the articles Types of Systems and What is Systems Thinking?. This article provides a guide to some of the basic concepts of systems developed by systems science and discusses how these relate to the definitions to be found in systems engineering (SE) literature. The concept of an engineered system is introduced as the system context of most relevance to SE.
A Basic Systems Science View
The most basic ideas of a system whole can be traced back to the thinking of Greek philosophers such as Aristotle and Plato. Many philosophers have considered notions of holism, that ideas, people or things must be considered in relation to the things around them to be fully understood (M’Pherson, 1974). One influential systems science definition of a system comes from general system theory (GST) "A System is a set of elements in interaction." (von Bertalanffy 1968)
The elements of a system may be conceptual organizations of ideals in symbolic form or real objects. GST considers abstract systems to contain only conceptual elements and concrete systems to contain at least two elements that are real objects, e.g. people, information, software and physical artifacts, etc. GST starts with the notion of a system boundary defined by those relationships which relate to membership of the system. The setting of a boundary and hence the identification of a system is ultimately the choice of the observer.
For closed systems all aspects of the system exist within this boundary. This idea is useful for abstract systems and for some theoretical system descriptions. The boundary of an open systems (glossary) defines those elements and relationships which can be considered part of the system and those which describe the interactions across the boundary between system elements and elements in the environment (glossary).
Open Systems
The relationships between the various elements of an open system can be related to a combination of the system's structure and behavior. The structure of a system describes a set of system elements and the allowable relationships between them. System behavior refers to the effect produced when an instance of the system interacts with its environment. An allowable configuration of the relationships between elements is referred to as a system state and the set of allowable configurations as its state space.
A system may be made up of a network of system elements and relationships at a single level of detail or scale. However, many systems evolve or are designed as hierarchies of related systems. Thus, it is often true that the elements of a system can themselves be considered as open systems. A “holon” was defined by Koestler as something which exists simultaneously a whole and as a part (Koestler 1967). Natural systems are real world phenomena to which systems thinking is applied to help better understand what those systems do and how they do it. A truly natural system would be one that can be observed and reasoned about, but over which people cannot exercise direct control, such as the solar system.
Social systems are purely human in nature, such as legislatures, conservation foundations, and the United Nations Security Council. These systems are human artifacts created to help people gain some kind of control over, or protection from, the natural world.
Engineered systems may be purely technical systems, such as bridges, electric autos, and power generators. Engineered systems which contain technical and either human or natural elements, such as water and power management, safety governance systems, dams and flood control systems, water and power safety assurance systems are often called sociotechnical systems (glossary). The behavior of such systems is determined both by the nature of the engineered elements and by their ability to integrate with or deal with the variability of the natural and social systems around them. The ultimate success of any engineered system is thus measured by its ability to contribute to the success of relevant sociotechnical system contexts.
06 November 2013
Scope of Systems - SEBOK (11)
The diagram is divided into five sections, each describing how we have treated systems knowledge in the SEBoK.
1. The Systems Fundamentals Knowledge Area considers the question “What is a Systems? It explores the wide range of system definitions and considers open system, system types, groupings of systems, complexity, and emergence. All of these ideas are particularly relevant to engineered system and to the groupings of such systems associated with the systems approach applied to engineered systems (i.e. product system, service system, enterprise system and system of systems capability).
2. The Systems Science Knowledge Area presents some influential movements in systems science, including the chronological development of systems knowledge and underlying theories behind some of the approaches taken in applying systems science to real problems.
3. The Systems Thinking Knowledge Area describes key concepts, principles and patterns shared across systems research and practice
4. The Representing Systems with Models Knowledge Area considers the key role that abstract models play in both the development of system theories and the application of systems approaches.
5. The Systems Approach Applied to Engineered Systems Knowledge Area defines a structured approach to problem/opportunity discovery, exploration, and resolution, that can be applied to all engineered systems. The approach is based on systems thinking and utilizes appropriate elements of system approaches and representations. This KA provides principles that map directly to SE practice.
Systems Thinking is a fundamental paradigm describing a way of looking at the world. People who think and act in a systems way are essential to the success of both research and practice of system disciplines. In particular, individuals who have an awareness and/or active involvements in both research and practice of system disciplines are needed to help integrate these closely related activities.
The knowledge presented in this part of the SEBoK has been organized into these areas to facilitate understanding, the intention is to present a rounded picture of research and practice based on system knowledge. These knowledge areas should be seen together as a “system of ideas” for connecting research, understanding, and practice, based on system knowledge which underpins a wide range of scientific, management, and engineering disciplines and applies to all types of domains.
05 November 2013
Costos de la implementación de un ERP (35)
- Definición de resultados a obtener con la implantación de un ERP.
- Definición del modelo de negocio.
- Definición del modelo de gestión.
- Definición de la estrategia de implantación.
- Evaluación de oportunidades para software complementario al producto ERP.
- Alineamiento de la estructura y plataformas tecnológicas.
- Análisis del cambio organizativo.
- Entrega de una visión completa de la solución a implantar.
- Implantación del sistema.
- Controles de calidad.
- Auditoría del entorno técnico y del entorno de desarrollo.
- Benchmarking de la implantación.
04 October 2013
QA en la implantación de un ERP (34)
Algunas de las principales causas detectadas por la consultora, que afectan el éxito de este tipo de proyectos, son:
- Cambios constantes de requerimientos desde el principio del proyecto motivados por expectativas poco realistas de parte de los usuarios.
- Carencia de compromiso y dirección de parte de la Alta Dirección.
- Metas y objetivos confusos para el proyecto.
- Comunicación irregular e ineficiente; las opiniones de los involucrados no son escuchadas.
- Restricciones de recursos; demasiados proyectos, todo es de alta prioridad.
- Roles poco claros: (“¿Qué va a pasar con mi empleo?”) y beneficios de los cambios (“¿En qué me va a beneficiar a mí?”).
- Estructura organizacional incompatible con las metas de los proyectos.
- Demasiadas iniciativas de cambio sucediendo al mismo tiempo sin una visión global de cómo se combinan o se integran estos cambios.
En todos los casos, la intervención de una consultora abarca aspectos desde la detección de vulnerabilidades, hasta el establecimiento de oficinas de aseguramiento de calidad y de gestión de proyectos de implantación que garanticen que la calidad, el tiempo y los costos de los proyectos se cumplan de acuerdo a lo planeado.
¿A qué clientes sirve la iniciativa QA para ERP´s?
Systems - SEBOK (10)
Knowledge Areas in Part 2
Each part of the SEBoK is divided into knowledge areas (KAs), which are groupings of information with a related theme. Part 2 contains the following KAs:
• Systems Fundamentals
• Systems Science
• Systems Thinking
• Representing Systems with Models
• Systems Approach Applied to Engineered Systems
Most systems engineers are practitioners, applying processes and methods that have been developed and evolved over decades. SE is a pragmatic approach, inherently interdisciplinary, yet specialized.
Systems engineers usually work within a specific domain, using processes and methods that are tailored to their domain’s unique problems, constraints, risks and opportunities. These processes and methods have been found to capture domain experts’ knowledge of the best order to tackle issues as a problem in the particular domain is approached.
Specific domains in which systems approaches are used and adapted include
• Technology products, integrating multiple engineering disciplines
• Information-rich systems, e.g. command & control, air traffic management etc
• Platforms, e.g. aircraft, civil airliners, cars, trains, etc
• Organizational and enterprise systems, which may be focused on delivering service or capability
• Civil engineering/infrastructure systems, e.g. roads networks, bridges, builds, communications networks, etc.
The specific skill-sets for each domain and system scale may be quite different. However there are certain underlying unifying principle based on systems science and systems thinking that will improve the effectiveness of the systems approach in any domain. In particular, shared knowledge of systems principles and terminology will enable communication and improve our ability to integrate complex systems that span traditional domain boundaries (Sillitto 2012). This integrated approach is increasingly needed to solve today’s complex system challenges, but as these different communities come together they can find that assumptions underpinning their world-views are not shared.
To bridge between different domains and communities of practice, we need a well-grounded definition of the “intellectual foundations of systems engineering”, and a common language to describe the relevant concepts and paradigms. We need to look beyond systems engineering to achieve this. An integrated systems approach for solving complex problems needs to combine elements of systems science, systems thinking and systems approaches to practice, ranging from the technical-systems focus that has been dominant in systems engineering to the learning-systems focus of social systems intervention. An integrated systems approach needs to provide a framework and language that allow different communities, with highly divergent world-views and skill sets, to work together for a common purpose.
The Systems Praxis Framework
The term “systems praxis” refers to the entire intellectual and practical endeavor for creating holistic solutions to today’s complex system challenges. Praxis (glossary) is defined as “translating an idea into action” (Wordnet) and the best holistic approach to a given complex challenge may require integrating appropriate theory and appropriate practice from a wide variety of sources. Systems praxis requires many communities to work together. To work together we must first communicate; and to communicate, we must first connect.
A framework for unifying systems praxis was developed by members of International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) and International Society for the System Sciences (ISSS) (International Federation for Systems Research (IFSR) 2012)) as the first step towards a “common language for systems praxis”.
This Systems Praxis Framework is included here because it represents current thinking on the foundations and common language of systems engineering, making the concepts and principles of systems thinking and practice accessible to anyone applying a systems approach to engineered system problems. This framework and thinking have been used to help organize the guide to systems knowledge in the SEBoK.
In this framework, the following elements are connected:
Systems Thinking is the core integrative element of the framework. It binds the foundations, theories and representations of systems science together with the hard, soft and pragmatic approaches of systems practice. In systems praxis, as in any practical discipline underpinned by science, there is constant interplay between theories and practice, with theory informing practice and outcomes from practice informing theory. Systems thinking is the ongoing activity of assessing and appreciating the system context, and guiding appropriate adaptation, throughout the praxis cycle.
Integrative Systems Science has a very wide scope and is grouped into three broad areas:
• Foundations, which help us to organize knowledge, learning and discovery, and include: meta-theories of methodology; ontology; epistemology; axiology; praxiology (theory of effective action); teleology, semiotics & semiosis; category theory; etc.
• Theories about systems, abstracted from domains and specialisms so as to be universally applicable: general system theory; systems pathology; complexity; anticipatory systems; cybernetics; autopoiesis; living systems; science of generic design; organization theory; etc.
• Representations and corresponding theories we can use to describe, explore, analyze, and make predictions about systems and their wider contexts, whether in terms of models; dynamics; networks; cellular automata; life cycles; queues; graphs; rich pictures; narratives; games and dramas; agent-based simulations; etc.
Systems Approaches to Practice aim to act on the real world to produce desired outcomes without adverse unintended consequences so practice needs to draw on the wide range of knowledge appropriate to the system-of-interest and its wider context. No one branch of systems science or practice provides a satisfactory explanation for all aspects of a typical system “problematique”, a more pragmatic approach is needed.
• Hard approaches suited to solving well-defined problems with reliable data and clear goals, using analytical methods and quantitative techniques. Strongly influenced by “machine” metaphors, they focus on technical systems, objective complexity, and optimization to achieve desired combinations of emergent properties. They are based on “realist” and “functionalist” foundations and worldview.
• Soft approaches suited to structuring problems involving incomplete data, unclear goals, and open inquiries, using a “learning system” metaphor; focus on communication, intersubjective complexity, interpretations and roles; and draw on subjective and “humanist” philosophies with constructivist and interpretivist foundations.
Pragmatic (Pluralist or Critical) approaches judiciously select an appropriate set of tools and patterns that will give sufficient and appropriate insights to manage the issue at hand, applying multiple methodologies drawn from different foundations as appropriate to the situation. Heuristics, boundary critiques, model unfolding, etc, enable understanding of assumptions, contexts, and constraints, including complexity due to different stakeholders’ values and valuations. An appropriate mix of “hard” “soft” and custom methods draws on both systems and domain-specific traditions. Systems may be viewed as networks, societies of agents, organisms, ecosystems, rhizomes, discourses, machines, etc. The set of “clouds” that collectively represents systems praxis is part of a wider ecosystem of knowledge, learning and action. Successful integration with this wider ecosystem is key to success with real world systems. Systems science is augmented by “hard” scientific disciplines such as physics and neuroscience, and by formal disciplines such as mathematics, logic and computation; it is both enhanced by, and used in, humanistic disciplines such as psychology, culture, and rhetoric, and pragmatic disciplines, such as accounting, design, and law. Systems practice depends on measured data and specified metrics relevant to the problem situation and domain; on solicitation of local values and knowledge; and on pragmatic integration of experience, legacy practices, and discipline knowledge.
Integrative Systems Science allows us to identify, explore and understand patterns of complexity through contributions from the foundations, theories and representations of systems science and other disciplines relevant to the “problematique”.
Systems Approaches to Practice address complex problems and opportunities using methods, tools, frameworks, patterns, etc, drawn from the knowledge of integrative systems science, while observation of the results of systems practice enhances the body of theory.
Systems Thinking binds the two together through appreciative and reflective practice using systems concepts, principles, patterns, etc.
09 September 2013
Agentes en la implantación de un ERP (33)
Users and Uses - SEBOK (9)
Primary Users
Primary users are those who use the SEBoK directly. Hyperlinks in the second column link to the associated use case, where one has been written. The use cases are listed at the end of the topic, and may also be seen here.
Primary SEBoK Users and Common Uses. (SEBoK Original)
# Users Uses
1 Practicing systems Engineers ranging from novice up through expert
• Taking on a new SE role in a project; preparing by finding references for study
• Expanding SE expertise and specialization; preparing by finding references for study
• Seeking to understand the principles of SE; seeking the best references to elaborate on those principles
• Reviewing a project or mentoring a new SE performer; seeking to understand what best practices to look for
• Pursuing professional development through study of SE topics, including new developments in SE
2 Process engineers responsible for defining or implementing SE processes
• Maintaining a library of SE process assets; seeking to understand which SE process models and standards are most relevant
• Tailoring a process for a specific project; seeking to learn how others have tailored processes, or how a specific application domain affects tailoring
• Measuring the effectiveness of an organization’s SE processes; seeking to learn how others have done
• Defining standards for a professional society or standards organization
3 Faculty Members
• Developing a new graduate program in SE, and deciding what core knowledge all its students must master; the user should consult the GRCSE in conjunction with the SEBoK
• Developing a new SE course; seeking to identify course objectives, topics, and reading assignments
• Incorporate SE concepts in courses or curricula focused on engineering disciplines other than SE
4 GRCSE authors
• As members of the GRCSE author team, deciding what knowledge to expect from all SE graduate students
5 Certifiers
• Defining a company’s in-house SE certification program; seeking to understand what others have done, how such programs are typically structured, and how to select the knowledge that each person seeking certification should master
• Defining certification criteria for a professional society or licensure program
6 General Managers, Other Engineers, developers, testers, researchers
• Mastering basic vocabulary, boundaries, and structure of SE; seeking a few primary references
• Learning what the scope of SE is, relative to the General Manager role
• Learning what the role of the systems engineer consists of, relative to others on a project or in an organization
• Learning to effectively perform a General Manager role on an SE integrated product team
7 Customers of Systems Engineering
• Providing resources to and receiving artifacts from systems engineers; seeking to better understand what to ask for, how to request it, how much to pay for it, and how to judge the quality of what is received
8 SE managers
• Evaluating possible changes in team processes and tools proposed by systems engineers on various teams; seeking independent information with which to evaluate the proposals
• Hiring systems engineers, and developing competency-based job descriptions
9 SE researchers
• Looking for gaps are in SE knowledge to help guide a research agenda
• Getting familiarize with a research topic; seeking the most important articles about the topic
Secondary Users
Secondary users are those who use the SEBoK with assistance from a systems engineer
Secondary SEBoK Users and Common Usages. (SEBoK Original)
# Users Uses
1 Human resource development professionals
• Supporting the hiring and professional development of systems engineers
2 Non-technical managers
• Augmenting understanding of central concerns with information about relevant SE topics; e.g., a contracting manager might want to better understand SE deliverables being called out in a contract 3 Attorneys, policy makers • Defining the impact of SE performance on central concerns; e.g., understanding the liability of a systems engineer for errors in judgment on a project, or the limitations of SE in guaranteeing the success of a project against actions of sponsors, managers, or developers
List of Use Cases
At the time of version 1.0, not every class of user has a use case developed. To illustrate the major uses, the following use cases are included:
• Use Case 1: Practicing Systems Engineers. This covers the first set of users
• Use Case 2: Other Engineers. This covers the second and sixth sets of users
• Use Case 3: Customers of Systems Engineering. This covers the seventh set of users
• Use Case 4: Educators and Researchers. This covers the third, fourth, and ninth sets of users
• Use Case 5: General Managers. This covers the sixth and eighth sets of users
While not exhaustive, the use cases show the utility of the SEBoK in various applications and contexts.
05 August 2013
SEBOK Evolution (8)
SEBoK Background
The Body of Knowledge and Curriculum to Advance Systems Engineering Project (BKCASE) was started in fall 2009 to create a community-based Guide to the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (SEBoK) and a Graduate Reference Curriculum for Systems Engineering (GRCSE).
It is also one of the research tasks of the Systems Engineering Research Center. Led by Stevens Institute of Technology and the Naval Postgraduate School, BKCASE is conducted in coordination with several professional societies and is funded both by the U.S. Department of Defense (DoD) and the generous volunteer efforts of 70 authors from dozens of companies, universities, and professional societies across 10 countries. For additional information on the BKCASE authors, please see the Acknowledgements article.
Previous work
Previous works on developing a guide to the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge include an International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) sponsored online version of the Guide to the Systems Engineering Body of Knowledge (INCOSE Insight 2002) and the INCOSE Handbook which has continued to evolve and is the de facto community statement of systems engineering (SE) knowledge and structure (INCOSE 2011).
Systems engineering knowledge has also been documented through the standards bodies, including ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288, Systems Engineering-System Life Cycle Processes (2008), IEEE/EIA 12207, Software Life Cycle Processes (2008), and ANSI/EIA 632, Processes for Engineering a System (1998, 2003). These efforts have provided a foundation for the SEBoK presented here; however, the goal of the SEBoK is to provide a comprehensive view of all SE knowledge and build upon the traditional approach to performing SE.
Around the world, many universities have launched undergraduate and graduate SE programs and numerous companies and government agencies have defined SE competency models and career paths. However, there are many differences in style and substance between university program curricula, career path models and competency models around the world. The SEBoK and GRCSE products will provide a framework for understanding the similarities and differences in these programs and helping to enable many arbitrary differences to gradually disappear.
Impact
The SEBoK authors believe that the scale of the effort to create the SEBoK, together with the open collaborative process used to write it, will itself have positive effects on the community. The author team includes official INCOSE representatives and Institute for Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) Computer Society and Systems Council representatives, and members of other national and international SE bodies. The effort has included extensive awareness initiatives and an open review process. Through these initiatives, the SEBoK is building consensus on the boundaries and context of systems engineering thinking, including its interfaces to three strongly related disciplines – software engineering, project management, and industrial engineering.
The SEBoK is intended not only to inform practicing systems engineers, but also to develop a common way to refer to systems engineering knowledge, facilitate communication among systems engineers, and provide a baseline for creating and evolving competency models, certification programs, educational programs, and other workforce development initiatives SEBoK Evolution around the world.
Releases
Originally, the BKCASE team anticipated three SEBoK releases, each about one year apart. But after version 0.5 was released, it was clear that another intermediate release was needed before version 1.0. Accordingly, the following versions of SEBoK have been released:
• Version 0.25 – a prototype that would create the first architecture and early content of the SEBoK for limited review and validation.
• Version 0.5 – a version suitable for early adopters.
• Version 0.75 – an interim version used to gather further community feedback and to address the most critical shortcomings identified in version 0.5.
• Version 1.0 – this version, intended for broad use.